[March 8, 2003]

Looking at Seto Ware & Akazu Ware

【Flow of ceramic history in Japan】
Classification to simplify a flow of ceramic history.
Kind of ceramics will be classified to 3 categories such as earthenware, pottery and porcelain.
Main periods of ceramics also will be divided to 3 roughly.
1 Ancient times (BC10000 to the 9th century A.D.): stone ware , earthenware,
　Sueki(without glaze) and ash glazed pottery
《In the 8th century, natural ash glaze was applied to pottery in the kilns at the foot of
Mt. Sanage for the first time in our country. After that, two style pottery such as the one
with glaze and the one without glaze have been coexisting. As can be imagined, the pottery
with glaze needs more advanced technique.》

2 Middle Ages (the 9th century to 17th century): glazed pottery, Koseto
《In the latter half of 16th century, tea bowls for tea ceremony enjoyed high popularity from
military commanders or wealthy merchants in Japan. Those tea bowls were fired with glaze
of pure black Seto-Guro or Kuro-Oribe, yellow Kiseto, silky Shino or bright green Oribe in
Mino area (Gifu pref.) as well as in Akazu area》
[See the other item 【Seven glazing agent and its ingredient】]

3 Modern times (17th century until today): porcelain
Porcelain was fired for the first time by a potter, Risanpei from Korea at Arita, Hizen
(southern part of Japan) in the 17th century. About 200 years later, Tamikichi Kato in Seto
went there to learn the technique of manufacturing porcelain with clear painting (Sometuke)
as well as a kiln, glazing agent and china clay at the risk of his life. He acquired the technique
and returned safely to Seto and is now deified as founder of Seto Porcelain Industry at
Kamagami Shrine

【Ceramic-wise position of Seto in our country】
Production of earthenware in Seto dates back about 7,000 year ago (in Jyomon era) and
the appearance has been changed from earthenware to pottery and to porcelain as the
time has passed by, but the ceramics are still produced here despite various difficulties
relating to adverse political or economic system. Why does ceramic industry survive at
same place for such a long time? Two factors are presumed.
One is the progressive spirit and wisdom with which the residents in relation to ceramics
have overcome such difficulties.
Another is abundant and good quality china clay.
With the main two factors, this area keeps the position of center of ceramics industry in
our country. This may be the only case in the world.

= The following are interpreted and summarized on judgment of this web page writer after
　 quoting partially a book "Ceramics of Japan 2 Koseto" written by Mr. Shizuo Honda =

【Origin of name, Setomono】
Since Heian period, Seto dominated the glazed pottery world as the only producing district
in Japan Therefore, ceramics has been called Setomono.　(defined at an item "Seto" on
Big Japan Land Name Dictionary)

【Area of Seto (viewing from long history)】
Komaki city, part of Nagoya city, Kagamihara city, Nagakute town, part of Kasugai city and
part of eastern Gigu prefecture. Places where earthenware and pottery with glaze have
been fired for about 7000 years should be called Seto. As times pass by, only the center
has been moved.

【SetoWare (in terms of broad meaning)】
Tokoname Ware and pottery in Atsumi old kiln since Kamakura era are of Sueki ware.
Those and "Mino Ware after Muromachi era" are included in Seto Ware. These area are
separated by a river or a mountain, but after all, their potters fired same glazed pottery.

【History of ceramics in Seto】
Although name of Seto appeared since the production of Sueki (early in 400), its history
as ceramics producing district dates back to far long ago. To grasp its history properly,
we must explain Seto in terms of both wider area and period. Seto has the longest life in
the world as ceramics producing district. There were many old ceramics producing districts
in the world, but only Seto and Keitokuchin in China will continue production still more
briskly. Seto is the phoenix in ceramics industry.

【The time of revolution or crisis in Seto ceramics-industry】
1) Changing to Sueki (pottery) from earthenware by adopting technique from China or
　　Korea (early in 400)
2) Beginning to produce pottery with ash glaze early in the 8th century when Sueki without
　 glaze was being fired.
3) Abandoning production technique of Sueki and shifting to China style technique in the
　 latter half of 12th century.
4) Producing pottery for tea ceremony in Momoyama era.(around 1560)
5) Bringing in new production method of porcelain in around 1600. Seto could not stay in
　　technologically advantageous position only with conventional glazed pottery. Because
　　the more advanced glazing technique was imported to western parts of Japan through
　　Korean potters.
6) Converting production from for domestic market to for export in around 1868.

In the time of revolution or crisis, Seto devised new production technique or changed the
way of marketing or the others to cope with demand of the times.
The force of habit of past prosperity was the greatest bottleneck in the revolution.
For example, firing manner of ceramics in both Tokoname and Shigaraki kilns remain almost
same as the one in the past
During transition period from Heian to Kamakura era (1180 -1190?), Seto pottery industry
declined, and plain or humble pottery called 'Yamachawan' was produced.　This was due to
a severe blow on the public in general caused by a shift from aristocracy to samurai
government (or the period of warrior [samurai] rule). After that, Samurai government was
established and the social order was stable. Then, the main stream of Seto, which was
hibernating, abandoned Yamachawan and begun to produce pottery with ash glaze on all
its surface. Seto Ware fired in Kamakura era was based mainly on technique from China
although descended from Sueki with partial glaze in Heian era.
That is to say, this ash glazed pottery copied "Seiji"(or Celadon) ,"shape of Tenmoku " or
"decoration pattern". Legendary person, Toshiro appeared on this time, and was called
pioneer of introducing (new) technique. He is worshiped as the ancestor of pottery like a
god at Suehiko shrine.
In this period, kilns such as those for Tokoname ware, Shigaraki ware or Bizen ware were
made, but those kilns were still producing pottery without glaze. Such pottery without glaze
is inherited until now. Seto promptly and independently started producing pottery with
complete glaze.

Production of pottery with complete glaze started much later than early in Kamakura era
(maybe, started around in 1250? - - - presumption of this web page writer).
So, it is unreasonable to relate Dogen's visit to "So dynasty" (China) with production of
such pottery. However, a power of the time was not surely satisfied with the existing
Buddhism, respected newly-risen Buddhism, Zen sect, favored Zen priests and listened to
their political opinion.
Many Zen priests of both Japan and "So dynasty" (China) visited each country.
As a result, many Tenmoku-chawan (rice bowl) , Bukkaki (vase for Buddhism) and utensils
for temples were produced in Seto. It seems to prove that revival or restoration of Seto
was owing to an advice from Zen priests and protection from a government in Kamakura
era. A lot of Seto Ware was excavated at Kamakura. It was only Seto that could receive
the technique of production of pottery with complete glaze from "So" dynasty (China).
Because Seto potters had skill for producing pottery with glaze since firing at Sanage old
kilns in Heian era (around 790).

Seto was elected as the production area for pottery for tea ceremony due to popularity
or fashion of tea ceremony at Kyoto or Sakai after around 1560 (the latter half of
Muromachi era). At the beginning, Seto produced tea container (Chaire) or Tenmoku rice
bowl (Tenmoku Chawan). In Momoyama era, in accordance with request from masters of
ceremonial tea, 'Senno Rikyu' or 'Furuta Oribe' and based on their instruction, Seto's
potters went to Mino district(Gifu pref.) to produce pottery for tea ceremony such as
the one with glaze of Kiseto, Shino. Setoguro or Oribe.
At that time, no districts other than Seto could cope with the instruction of those masters
of ceremonial tea. Seto was the only district to be able to produce pottery with glaze.
In 1592, Hideyoshi begun to chastise Chousen (Korea), and many Korean potters was
moved in to western part of Japan. Then, Korean glazing technique was implanted there,
and Seto could not be content with its present position since Kamakura era.

But, early in Edo era (around 1650), porcelain with under glaze painting ("Shita-etsuke"
or "Sometuke") or over glaze painting ("Uwa-etuke" or "Iro-e") came into existence at
Kyushu, and Seto plunged into depression. About 150 year later, Tamikichi and a group
of potters relieved Seto from its difficulty. He went to Kyushu secretly to research new
production method of porcelain and returned to Seto. He tried to mass produce porcelain
with under glaze painting ("Sometsuke" ) and over glaze painting.
So, production of porcelain in Seto had gradually amounted to the majority of its
production in Japan after 1807.

《Sometuke (painting under glazing) of Seto and Kyushu》
Sometuke is a stage of usual manufacturing processes of porcelain. The manner is same
in all districts. Sometuke of Seto is called "Yuu-Ri-Sei" (blue under glaze). When painting
Seto Sometsuke, the firing of the biscuit is not done sometimes.
Sometuke is painted usually on porcelain, but sometimes on pottery too

= Manufacturing process of porcelain with Sometsuke=
China clay (mixing) →　Base forming　→ (Decoration)　→ Drying　→　(Biscuit firing)　
→ Sometsuke (painting under glaze)　→　Glazing　→ Drying　→ Firing [about 1300℃]
→ Uwaetsuke (painting over glaze; "Iro-e" in Kyushu district) → Firing [about800℃]
→ Finished

In Meiji era, Seto noticed that demand for porcelain from abroad would increase, and
changed majority of ceramics production to procelain for export.

In Taisho era, most ceramics production area in Japan kept conventional production
method. But, Seto begun to produce quality porcelain for export represented by
Noritake China and strode toward the world.

= The following: quoting partially from a lecture memo handed by Mr. Kokubu,
　 Honorary professor of Nagoya Institute of Technology at a Seminar titled "Study of
　 Oribe" at "Bizan Ceramic Art School" on Oct. 5, 2002 =

【Seto Ware for tea ceremony in eras of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi】
A big earthquake with magnitute of 8.2 - 8.4 occurred in Tokai district in 1498.
A deadly blow to Ohminato, Ise Bay devastated distribution of Seto Ware. Different
from Shigaraki (famous for Shigaraki Ware) which is near big consumer area, Kyoto
or Sakai and different from Bizen (famous for Bizen Ware) or Tokoname (famous for
Tokoname Ware) which is along a sea and convenient for shipping, Seto is far from
consumption area and sea. So, taking its pottery to consumption areas required high
travel expenses and many customs duties. To cover such cost, Seto had to add value
to Seto Ware.
Therefore, transportation to big consumer areas of only small and high value quality
pottery such as tea container or Tenmoku-Chawan (Tenmoku rice bowl) could exceed
break-even point.
Disappearance of bases for distribution, Ohminato stopped distribution of Seto Ware
almost completely even if temporarily.

Center of Seto old kilns just before the earthquake in the 15th century were
"Akazu-ho", "Seto village" and "Shinano-gou". The main pottery was shifted from
flower vase for Buddhism("Bukkaki") such as a jar with 4 ears("Shijiko") or pot
("Heishi") to eating utensil such as bowl or pot, and then to pottery for tea ceremony
such as Tenmoku bowl, tea container or incense burner or censer.
Akazu-ho (Akazu at present) was under control of Owari country (Aichi pref.) at that
time, and a territory of temple, "Sanpoin" (main temple of "Shugen-do") in Kyoto
during a period from around 1353 to 1402. Shinano-gou (Shinano at present) was a
territory of Atsuta shrine.

Seto had about 300 Anagama kilns in the end of the 15th century, but lost almost
all of them early in the 16th century. Kilns in Mino area also decreased sharply in
this time.
In 1520s, Nobuhide Oda (father of Nobunaga Oda) wrested control of Tsushima and
Atsuta Port and put a pirate (called Mizuno Pirate) in Ise Bay under control. Then,
the whole Owari country was economically dynamic, but only Seto Ware was left
out in the cold.
In 1563, Nobunaga unified almost all districts in Owari country, but area around
Seto remained to be confused. So, Nobunaga put a board at Unkoji Temple at
Akazu. The board said that a law for ban of injustice was made valid.
In this time, arbitrary or illegal behavior was rampant as follows:
Outrage and violence by soldiers, felling a tree, lodging in temple precincts,
stabbing in temples, collection of money for praying for the repose of souls
("Jidoubutsu"), trade of land or field, collection of customs service charge.

Irrespective of Nobunaga's effort to promote the trade at Seto or Moriyama
(eastern part of Nagoya), so good results were not achieved.

After unity of Owari country, Nobunaga repeated invasion into Mino district for
several years. Owari districts were plunged into war until 1568 (Eiroku 10) when
he changed home castle from Komaki to Gifu. Seto was a contacting place
between Owari forces and Mikawa ones. So, war around Seto continued for
about 30 years. In 1560, Shinano castle was ruined due to a repeated attack
by Imagawa Yoshimoto. He was defeated in Okehazama War by Nobunaga in
the same year. After that, Nobunaga's target was shifted to Mino district.
Then, Owari and Mikawa districts became peace. But during the war, some
potters became wild warriors ("Nobushi").
In 1566 (Eiroku 8), Kinoshita Tokichirou (Hideyoshi) built a fort at Sumimata
(Sunomata?). At this time, about 1200 wild warriors from Shinano gathered
for the building.

In 1574 (Tensho 2), Nobunaga issued official documents to protect Seto
pottery industry, but no effect.
However, orders for removal of barriers and "Rakuichi-Rei (order for
approving the past market participants' right and making the market active
and prosperous)" were very effective.

Transportation route through Chigusa mountain path of Mts. Suzuka by
merchants in Honai (Yookaichi city) disappeared after Nobunaga defeated
House of Ise and Kitabatake. So, conventional or the past route should have
revived, but did not revive. Potters in Seto pulled (removed) their production
from kilns in Seto, Akazu, Mizuno or Shinano area. Some potters remained
at Anada or Kasahara area, but temporarily.
Many potters begun to move to Tajimi, Toki, Kani or the neighboring area
which were trading route by Honai merchants over half century in the past.

In dark age from early in 1500s to 1573 (early in Tensho era), some pottery
for tea ceremony were excavated. Tendance of pottery in this period:
1) Kiln was changed from Anagama kiln to Ohgama kiln.
2) Getting away from quality pottery for tea ceremony, Seto begun to
　 produce popularized pottery to cope with demand from people of refined
　 or elegant taste.
3) Change appeared in glazing technique and became colorful. Iron painting
　 ("Tetsu-e") was tried on the surface of pottery.

Although Seto Ware was dejected by the series of disasters such as a
convulsion of nature and war and was lying low for about 100 years, it begun
to show signs of restoration. Seemingly useless action by Nobunaga might
give an impetus to the movement of restoration.


= The following: summarizing after quoting web page of "Ceramics Akazu
Ware" in Japanese =

【Close-up of Akazu Ware】

Seven glazes
Of the hundreds of different glazes that are possible depending on color
and firing, it was Mr Umemura's idea to define Akazu Ware by narrowing
them down to only seven glazes. So now Akazu Ware is often described as
having seven glazes and 12 pattern decorating techniques.
"The glazes are basically the colors of the rainbow," says Mr.Umemura.
Akazu kilns were the first in Japan to apply glazes to pottery.
Early in Heian period (the 10th century), the kilns begun to fire china clay
applied with natural ash glaze. Mr Umemura explains that the area always
had very good clay -- a white clay without much iron content. So faced
with this pristine canvass, potters were naturally inclined to "dress it up."
As a result, various types of pottery with various glaze emerged in the
same district. The main glaze consists of Ash, umber Tetuyu (Iron),
partially brown in black Koseto (kind of iron) , deep green Oribe,
skin tasted Shino ,yellow Kiseto and Ofuke (kind of ash).
Each of them is absolutely distinct from the other.
Further, a considerable variety of techniques for surface decoration were developed.
The techniques comprise Hera-me (spatula impressions), Kushi-me (combing
designs), Inka (pressing repetitive shapes into the clay), Ukibori (embossing) and
the others.
These were all invented in Akazu and later adopted by other pottery
districts.

= The following: summarizing Mr Umemura's opinion and his producing style in
　 Japanese =

【A total approach】
"A potter is in charge of every aspect of the making of Akazu Ware from the
kneading of the clay to the preparation of the glazes". Making one's own glazes is
necessary to get one's own distinctive effects. It is important to have the desire
to produce something unique which belong only to oneself. Although it is difficult to
develop new products with ceramic, potters should conceive trendy models and
living ware that fit in with the lifestyle. We are not in a time of mass production.
So, we have to add value and charm to the products so that people are willing to
buy. From now on, a potter has to design, produce and sell ceramic products by
oneself. To market one's own products without relying on a distributor, you must
build up your fan or your clientele. To continue to fire Akazu Ware in Akazu area
with long history, potters and citizen, if possible, should:
1 keep the future of Akazu Ware firmly in mind,
2 bring industrialized tourism into view,
3 send propaganda with an internet, and
4 study science and technology as well as skill or know-how in ceramics

【Magic of fire】
One of charm of pottery is that you must leave the final important stage to a fire
beyond your ability. Magic of fire diversifies potentiality of the seven glaze.

(The following is summarized after quoting from a web page of "Industrial
Cooperative Society of Akazu Ware" in Japanese)

【Appeal of Akazu Ware】
Meeting of clay material with warmth and glazing agents with different texture
produces beauty. This is a charm of glazed pottery. Using seven glazes and 12
pattern decorating techniques, potters produce pottery with their own image.
Glaze-melting until completion of firing or unforeseen change due to firing
temperature is also charm of glazed pottery. Effective change on the work during
or after firing is called Keshiki or scene. Keshiki is loved in pottery for tea ceremony
and becomes an object of appreciation. Akazu Ware is basically applied glazing agent
on body without biscuit firing. This is called 'Namagake' technique. Pottery is fired
in a situation where glazing agent is not adapted to body of china clay. Then, glazing
agent shrinks and makes some pattern like egg. This egg is called Yuudamari or glaze pool.
Using this Namagake technique, you can intentionally make Keshiki.

【Seven glazing agent and its ingredient】
Two factors will be important for glazing. One is ingredient and the other is firing
manner. There are various ingredients to make the glaze. (For instance, feldspar is
key ingredient to make Shino glaze.) Glaze firing only for Shino is made in a kiln in
incomplete burning of fuel or reduction atmosphere. Glaze firing for others is made
in a kiln with only fresh air and without introduction of any carbon elements.

Ingredient for 7 kinds of glaze:
Haiyuu or Kaiyu (Ash glaze) (fired in around 790-1192 Heian era) →　
　　　　　　　　　　　　Ash of trees and plants (fired in 1200℃ 18 hours)
Tetsuyu (Iron glaze)　(in 1192-1333 Kamakura era) →　
　　　　　　　　　　　　Ash, Iron, feldspar, calcium carbonate (fired in 1190℃ 18-20 H)
Koseto (in around 1192-1333 Kamakura era and 1338-1573 Muromachi era) →
　　　　　　　　　　　Koseto should be classified into Haiyu (or Kaiyu or Ash glaze) and
　　　　　　　　　　　Tetsuyu (or iron glaze). Fired for tea ceremony utensils.
Kiseto (1568-1600 Azuchi-Momoyama era) →
　　　　　　　　　　Ash, feldspar, calcium carbonate or iron (fired in 1190℃18-20 H)
　　　　　　　　　　Copper glaze is used to produce greenish pattern.
　　　　　　　　　　This beautiful pottery is not made in any era after that.
Shino(1568-1600 Azuchi-Momoyama era) → feldspar (burned in 1200-1220℃ 24H)
　　　　　　　　　　Utensils for tea ceremony was fired. Born on the way to aiming for
　　　　　　　　　　Chinese White Porcelain, but the appearance is completely different
　　　　　　　　　　from it. It is said that Shino suits Japanese very well.
Oribe (1603-1867 latter part of Azuchi-Momoyama era to Edo era) →
　　　　　　　　　　Ash, feldspar, copper, calcium carbonate. (fired in 1250℃ 30 H)
　　　　　　　　　　Among Seto and Mino pottery in Azuchi-Momoyama and Edo era,
　　　　　　　　　　most versatile in style and shape.
Ofuke(1603-1867 Edo era) → Ingredients are unknown.
　　　　　　　　　　Fired in a kiln inside Nagoya Castle by potters from Seto(Akazu).
　　　　　　　　　　This glaze produces a beautiful blue toned ceramic.


Hongyo-gama kiln

The producing of porcelain in Seto has started from the latter half year of Edo era
(in 1700's) and become conspicuous as an industry. Until then, the producing of pottery
has been principal work or job and called as 'Hongyo' or original business.
While the producing of porcelain has been new-comer and called 'Shinsei' or newly
coming business.
Hongyo-gama kiln is like climbing kiln because it is constructed on the slope of a hill
to fire pottery such as a water jar or an earthenware mortar. Hongyo-gama in Hora area
is a kiln with 4 consecutive chambers and was used in practical manner until the middle of
1970s.
Only two Hongyo-gama remain in the city today. Both 'Ichirizuka-Hongyo-gama' and
'Hora (Seto)-Hongyo-gama' are designated as tangible cultural properties.
There are many Ana-gama (cave-shape kiln) owned by ceramic artists in Hora area
where ceramics are fired several times a year.